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否运转良好需要进行比较制度评估。越来越多的人认识到,比较之下法庭的局限性比法律中心主义传统所承认的更为严重。
  这些局限性的严重程度并非完全一样,而是随着环境的变化而变化。区别对待契约研究法需要认识这一点,尤其是如果不同交易需要不同的治理结构,那么这些需要将会得到明确的认识。相应地,契约的研究从法律规则扩展到对各种备择治理结构的评估,法庭也只是其中一种。其中颇为重要的是,在各方的调适与持续需求巨大的情况下,运用双边治理结构(私人安排)来履行非标准契约的做法。
  本文主要是进一步阐述私人安排,主要观点如下:
  1抵押品。现行观点认为,在现代缔约过程中抵押品是一个奇异但几乎没有实践意义的概念。但是事实上,现实经济活动中用抵押品支持交换的行为屡见不鲜而且还很重要。设立或者引进抵押品只是情况的一部分,在交换中还需要考虑侵占风险和预期适应不良的状况。此时复杂的治理结构应运而生,互惠的交易就是其中的一种。
  2资产专用性。交易双方对于各自特有的资产支持程度将会极大地影响经济活动的组织。本章再次强调了下述主张:(1)如果要实现经济组织的效率目标,就必须区别各种治理结构并与交易的各种基本属性相匹配;(2)将资产专用性的范围扩展到各种专项资产;(3)在相同条件下,如果一方提供抵押以支持供应商的专用性资产投资而另一方不提供抵押,那么供应商将会给前者更佳的优惠条件。
  3微观分析。本文在研究谈论各种交换关系时以交易作为分析单位。评估交易并且主要以节约交易成本的方式把交易与治理结构相匹配,这样做需要了解有关经济活动与组织,与传统的经济学相比,更具有微观分析的性质。实证研究必将体现这一点。对契约进行微观分析的例子中包括我自己的论著(1976),Thomas Palay (1981);Goldberg和Erickson(1982);以及Scott Masten(1982)。价格和数量具有相关性,但是使价格与成本匹配的契约,影响调适的方式以及所提供的保障措施,都不仅仅是相关的,有时还具有决定意义。
  4整体缔约。并非所有的交易都有违约风险,也不可能给一切有违约风险的交易提供保障措施。然而,对交易双方来说困扰契约的潜在风险从一开始就很明显,对契约和缔约制度的研究是追本溯源的做法。这对于评估囚徒困境的重要性和理解司法管理产生了种种衍生后果。
  a 囚徒困境。尽管合作有收益,但是人们普遍认为,囚徒困境的残酷逻辑使合作大打折扣。显然如果能够恰当地改变各种收益,那么人们能够防止违约行为。但这一战略是不可行的或不被采用的,所以囚徒困境会继续存在,否则就会诉诸于“外生的、行动者所遵守的合作行为规范”(Albert Hirschman,1982年,p1470)。我认为,我们更应该关注构建更优的事前激励结构的可行性。这种策略不受关注的首要原因在于,对契约制度的研究在整个研究中占有很低的地位。因此由于缺乏关注,很多研究未能发现非标准缔约行为中各种微妙激励属性。于是就夸大了囚徒困境对于交易研究的实际意义。

可信的承诺:用抵押品支持交易(18)
b公正。认为抵押是按有利条件供应产品的观念,有着任意行使权力的表象:强势一方要求弱势一方提供抵押品,而弱者因为别无选择所以只能接受。事实上,对各种备择契约方案的比较制度评估表明,常需要通过抵押品来满足效率目的。而实现这一结果正是交易双方的共同利益所在。这不仅能够促使生产方对最有效的技术进行投资,同时当实现的需求价格大于边际成本时就能促使买方提货。我们有必要对契约进行整体考察,要特别注意这些契约的治理特征。不应该仅仅考察双方在契约执行阶段的关系而不考察事前讨价还价关系的公正或竞争原则,这是不完整或不可取的。Robert Nozick对于公正的看法是恰当的:“分配是否公平取决于它是如何进行的。相比之下,公正的现时平分原则认为分配的公正取决于物品是如何分配的(谁拥有什么)。”(1975,p153)他提到的达成公正的现时平分方法忽视了事前的讨价还价,仅仅根据结果来评价公正与否。由于意识到公正是这样实现的,初始讨价还价达成的条款就会不同于交易各方在得到以下保证时达成的条款:在评价契约关系的优点时,将会考虑完全契约。但若采取广泛的讨价还价方法仍然面临两个难题:资源的最初分配以及各方评价复杂契约的能力。这些问题的相对重要性随着环境变化而变化。缔约双方不应该希望既获得低价格,又不必提供抵押品,鱼与熊掌不可兼得。
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可信的承诺:用抵押品支持交易(19)
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可信的承诺:用抵押品支持交易(20)
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